- cooperate [from Latin co- + operari 'to work']
- collaborate [from Latin com- + laborare 'to work']
cooperate的名词是cooperation，不是corporation.
Cooperation (written as co-operation in British English) is the process of groups of organisms working or acting together for common, mutual, or some underlying benefit, as opposed to working in competition for selfish benefit. Many animal and plant species cooperate both with other members of their own species and with members of other species (symbiosis or mutualism 共生或互利共生).
Humans cooperate for the same reasons as other animals: immediate benefit, genetic relatedness, and reciprocity, but also for particularly human reasons, such as honesty signaling (indirect reciprocity), cultural group selection, and for reasons having to do with cultural evolution.
In social psychology, reciprocity is a social norm of responding to a positive action with another positive action, rewarding kind actions. As a social construct, reciprocity means that in response to friendly actions, people are frequently much nicer and much more cooperative than predicted by the self-interest model; conversely, in response to hostile actions they are frequently much more nasty and even brutal.
Indirect reciprocity involves cooperative acts towards strangers, either in response to their kindness to third parties (downstream) or after receiving kindness from others oneself (upstream). It is considered to be important for the evolution of cooperative behavior amongst humans.
Within evolutionary biology, signalling theory is a body of theoretical work examining communication between individuals, both within species and across species.
- Honest signaling of cooperative intentions | Behavioral Ecology | Oxford Academic (oup.com)
- Indirect reciprocity and the evolution of "moral signals" - PubMed (nih.gov)
- Anger and Sadness as Moral Signals (sagepub.com)
The picture below shows: By stotting (also called pronking), a springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) signals honestly that it is young, fit, and not worth chasing to predators such as cheetahs.
Stotting (also called pronking or pronging) is a behavior of quadrupeds, particularly gazelles, in which they spring into the air, lifting all four feet off the ground simultaneously. Usually, the legs are held in a relatively stiff position. Many explanations of stotting have been proposed; there is evidence that at least in some cases it is an honest signal to predators that the stotting animal would be difficult to catch. Stotting may be:
- A good means of rapid escape or jumping over obstructions. However, this cannot be true in Thomson's gazelles because these prey animals do not stot when a predator is less than approximately 40 m away.
- An anti-ambush behavior; animals living in tall grass may leap into the air to detect potential predators.
- An alarm signal to other members of the herd that a predator is hazardously close thereby increasing the survival rate of the herd.
- A socially cohesive behavior to escape predators by coordinated stotting, thereby making it more difficult for a predator to target any individual during an attack (much like the suggestion that zebra stripes cause motion dazzle).
- An honest signal of the animal's fitness. Stotting could be a way of deterring pursuit by warning a predator of the animal's unsuitability as prey: the prey benefits by not being chased (because it is in fact very fit); the predator benefits by not wasting time chasing an animal it is unlikely to catch. This signalling explanation avoids the group selection connotations of the "alarm signal" and "socially cohesive" escape hypotheses.
- An instance of Amotz Zahavi's handicap principle, whereby stotting is signalling to predators that the animal is so fit it can escape even if it deliberately slows itself down with some apparently useless behavior (i.e. stotting).
- A predator detection signal whereby the animal signals to the predator that it has been seen and therefore does not have the advantage of surprise. Many such signals exist in different groups of animals. Again, this would be an honest pursuit deterrence signal, benefiting the prey by not being chased (because it can be seen to be aware of the predator and ready to escape immediately) and benefitting the predator by not wasting time stalking prey when it has already been seen. Evidence for this hypothesis is that cheetahs abandon more hunts when their gazelle prey stots, and when they do give chase to a stotting gazelle, they are far less likely to make a kill. However, gazelles stot less often to cheetahs (which stalk and would therefore probably give up when detected) than to African wild dogs, which "course" (chase prey relentlessly, not relying on surprise).
- A fitness display to potential mates in a sexual selection process rather than an antipredator adaptation.
- Play, especially in young animals, which may help to prepare them for adult life. In favor of this hypothesis, stotting is sometimes observed in immature animals; against this is the fact that stotting is generally seen in adult prey responding to predators.
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标签：stotting,animal,predator,cooperate,prey,reciprocity From： https://www.cnblogs.com/funwithwords/p/16617670.html